"Where is the wisdom we have lost in knowledge
Where is the knowledge we have lost in information"

(Eliot, T.S. The Rock)

Problem and purpose

"More new information has been produced in the last 30 years than in the previous 5000. About 1000 books are published internationally every day, and the total of all printed knowledge doubles every eight years" (Large, Peter. The Micro Revolution Revisited) Given the fact that information is growing in volume so quickly, how does one sort through all of this? Is there a systematic way to find the needed information and how does one do that? The purpose of this section is to give some insights into how information is created, arranged and organized so that the task of finding needed information can become manageable.

Definition of information

"Information refers to facts and opinions provided and received during the course of daily life. One obtains information directly from other living beings, from mass media, from electronic data banks, and from all sorts of observable phenomena in the surrounding environment. A person using such facts and opinions generates more information, some of which is communicated to others during discourse, by instructions, in letters and documents, and through other media. Information organized according to some logical relationships is referred to as a body of knowledge, to be acquired by systematic exposure or study. Application of knowledge (or skills) yields expertise, and additional analytical or experiential insights are said to constitute instances of wisdom. Use of the term information is not restricted exclusively to its communication via natural language. Information is also registered and communicated through art and by facial expressions and gestures or by such other physical responses as shivering. Moreover, every living entity is endowed with information in the form of a genetic code. These information phenomena permeate the physical and mental world, and their variety is such that it has defied so far all attempts at a unified definition of information." (Encyclopedia Britannica)

Why information is important

Information is important because "We need information to help deal with, adjust to, prepare for, and enjoy our environment. Facts, experience, people and places all give us information.... How we know the world and how we relate to people, experience, and events depend on what we know, what we have learned, and what we think about an experience. Our decisions depend on what we know and can learn. Our future experience depends on our ability to learn. Information is the core of all education and of all personal growth and development." (Wolpert, Samuel. Economics of information. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1986)

Forms of information

The information, revolution accelerated by the ubiquitous microcomputer and the subsequent rapid expansion of the Internet, has added a whole new dimension to the challenge of getting, organizing and using information. Prior to the introduction of the microcomputer the most commonly encountered forms of information are written--newspapers, books, journals etc. Increasingly the computer screen is where we find information. To a degree the ease and currency of information available through computers makes it more attractive than other forms. But the form that information takes should not be considered alone. No one format is inherently better than another. It is important to think of information in a more generic sense without the limitations of format.

There may be time when you want to find the closing share price for stock issued by the Walt Disney Company. That information is available in most daily newspapers or the Wall Street Journal stock pages. You could also get the current price (with about a 15 minute delay) by logging on to the Internet at http://www.stocksmart.com. You can also call up AT&T information to obtain a telephone number or search an Internet site at http://www.switchboard.com. The important thing is to know when to use the proper information source and format.

Evolution of information and forms

Information goes through phases, or a process of format change from its discovery/creation that continues through the point of becoming common knowledge. Some have called this the bibliographic or information chain. In the first phase, information is created or formed in the minds of people or organizations. The form of the these ideas, thoughts, and discoveries is somewhat difficult to get hold of. At this first level people talk to people and exchange information informally. Some ideas do get recorded in various ways. In this second phase the ideas thoughts, discoveries and creations become tangible as reports of work-in-progress, unpublished papers/studies, periodical articles, books and encyclopedic summaries. In the third stage information is represented, not in complete form with inherent intellectual content, but as citations, abstracts etc.

Information and communication

Communication is critical to the process making information useful and usable. It has to be shared, transmitted or perceived for actions or decisions to be taken, shaped or influenced. For example when a meteorologist, with information about a distant and emerging storm system goes on television or radio with a weather report, people can do something with the information. They can take precautionary measures that may save lives or property. If the information is not communicated, it has little value. Withholding information can be a valuable exercise too. For example, in the interest of national security, our government keeps certain types of information secret. Similarly, companies try to keep certain information about products and manufacturing processes secret from their competitors to gain competitive advantage.

Journalists, scientists, researchers, and anyone else who uses information rely on familiar communication sources. They not only present their reports and findings at public and professional meeting, they publish in journals and books. This process of dissemination, or communication of ideas, adds value to the information because others can now use it, act on it, and make decisions based on it.

Libraries are an integral part of this communication process because they subscribe to the journals where scientists and other researchers publish. They help to organize information so that it can be found easily. They also acquire bibliographic and information management tools that can be used to find what the scientists and researchers and others are trying to communicate.

Primary and secondary sources

Hearsay is defined as information or rumor heard from another. To some degree the authenticity of information is dependent upon the source of that information. That is one reason why, in the process of communicating information, it is important to know the source. Information directly from the source is often considered to be more reliable. One way that information is characterized is by the concept of primary and secondary source. Across disciplines the meaning of these two types of sources is not exactly the same.

Among humanists such as artists, historians and literary critics, primary sources, documents or works are those items created by principal participants or artists. For example, a letter written by Abraham Lincoln would be a primary source. A secondary sources might be a commentary on or criticism of a primary source usually taking the form of an article or book. Thus an article by a historian discussing Lincoln's thoughts on slavery would be a secondary source.

Among scientists and social scientists primary sources are those documents that provide a full description of the original research--those products of inquiry and research that are produced by the researcher him/herself or an organization. For example, an article appearing in the journal Science describing work on the human immune system would a primary source. Other examples of primary sources for science and technology fields may include conference proceedings, dissertations, laboratory notes, monographs, preprints and technical reports. A secondary source in a field like biology, might be a review article which synthesizes and summarizes the work of several scientists working on a similar problem. Other examples include bibliographies, dictionaries, encyclopedias, handbooks, annuals and yearbooks, manuals and the like.

Reference sources

While primary sources may ultimately be the focus of most inquiry and information seeking behavior, a group of secondary sources is an indispensable means for locating those primary sources. Broadly speaking these are called references sources. They are often printed with special contents and arrangement of those contents to make it easy to find particular information. It will be helpful to know the types of reference sources listed below and what contribution they make to finding information. An example of each type of reference source has been included with each to help demonstrate the characteristics of each.

Abstracts--are among the most important sources to researchers because they contain content summaries of the articles, books and other materials. Example: Social work abstractsIndex area of stacks in reference

Almanacs--may focus on narrow or broad topics and contain lists, tables or other factual data in summary form. Example: The World almanac & book of factsRef. AY67.N5 W7 1996

Atlases--generally are collections of maps. However, there are anatomical atlases that contain collections of anatomical diagrams or drawings. Usually atlases, unlike single maps have indexes of place names with coordinate references to make it easy to find particular locations. Example: Rand McNally road atlas : United States/Canada/MexicoRef. G1201.P2 R354

Bibliographies--are lists of books, frequently with a particular focus (i.e. subject, author, publishers or similar). Example: Afro-american history: a bibliographyRef. Z1361.N39 S56

Biographical sources--are helpful when one needs information on a person. These sources may contain brief or more lengthy entries and some include references for further research Example: Who's who in AmericaRef. E176 .W6422

Catalogs--list items on a particular subject in a particular order. These may be books, stamps, pictures etc. Example: Postage stamp prices of the United States, United Nations and Canada and provinces : plus: Confederate States, U. S. possessions, albums and accessories, comprehensive U. S. stamp identifierHE6226 .H3 1980

Current awareness sources--are helpful when a large amount of published literature is produced in a field and it is necessary to scan what is being published. Usually it is only the tables of contents information from journals and the like that are listed. Example: Current contents: life sciences

Dictionaries--are alphabetical listings of words, phrases, and other terms. These may be consulted for explanations of meaning or usage. Example: International dictionary of psychologyRef. BF31 .S83 1989

Encyclopedias--provide topical descriptions and elaborations of meaning. They may be general and cover many subjects or be quite specific to a particular field or subject. Often short bibliographies of additional sources are appended to the articles. Example: Encyclopedia of educationRef. LB15 .B56 1970

Field guides--are practical handbooks that provide reference data, charts and sketches for identification and similar data. Example: Birds of North America : a guide to field identificationQL681 .R59 1983

Guides--explain and illustrate a topic. Example: American armies and battlefields in Europe; a history, guide, and reference bookD528 .U5 1938

Guides to the literature--these are selected bibliographies, often arranged in topical order. Example: Guide to information sources: chemistryRef. QD 8.5 .I47 1992

Handbooks--are often a compilation of reference data and a kind of one-volume topical reference library. Example: Handbook of chemistry and physicsRef. QD65 .H3 v.49

Indexes--these are alphabetically arranged listings of journal and book contents, typically subdivided by author and subject. Example: Reader's guide to periodical literatureIndex tables

Manuals--these generally contain instructions on particular topics. Example: The Merck manual of diagnosis and therapyRef. RC55 .M4

Maps--while often geographical, astronomical maps are another example of a reference that shows the proximity of one locations or object in relation to others. Example: Topographical maps located in map cases

Reviewing sources--these provide an evaluation or summary of the content of particular media, whether books, journal articles or films and videos. Example: Book review digestRef. Z1219 .C96

Tables--these bring together reference data, formula and statistics that are frequently or infrequently used. For example, interest tables contain amortization tables for loan amounts and the monthly payments at particular interest rates. Example: CRC standard mathematical tablesRef. QA47 .M315

Yearbooks--these provide up-to-date information on topics where information is changing periodically. For example, a political yearbooks might contain listings of state representatives, congressmen, or heads of state. Example: China yearbookRef. DS777.53 .C459

Indexes, abstracts and databases

It would be nearly impossible to locate published journal literature without indexes and databases. Without them it would be necessary to rely on memory or thumb through large stacks of journal backfiles. Indexes, abstracts and databases provide a way to find information that is buried between the covers of journals and, in some cases books. They are compiled following specific rules for organization and content. Later you'll learn about controlled vocabulary and thesauri and how they are used with indexes and databases.

You may find it helpful to consider the overall structure of a journal article and the parts, that taken together, make up the article. When an index or database is compiled many of these component parts are identified to make the article easier to find. For example you might have only the name of the author, but are unsure of the exact title of the article or where it was published. Most computer databases can help you narrow down your search to several articles, even if the author has published several times.

Here is an example taken from Psychlit that shows which elements of the articles included in this computer database have been indexed to enable users to search effectively and efficiently. Because these particular fields are part of the indexing structure of Psychlit is would be possible to limit a search to Spanish language journal articles published since 1990 that deal with child development.

You need to know a couple of things about indexes and databases. First, most databases are confined to a specific subject or group of related subjects. These might be biology (Life sciences), medicine (Medline), education (ERIC) , psychology (Psychlit), history (Historical abstracts or America: history and life) or literature (Modern Languages Association bibliography) etc. There are some databases that cross many fields of knowledge too (Expanded Academic Index). It is important to select the appropriate database for the search you are doing. For instance, you wouldn't find much about Ernest Hemingway if you looked in Medline. Just as you would be unwise to look first for articles on DNA by looking in Historical abstracts.

Second, in order that you can find what you are looking for, the databases uses rules and structures that make them as consistent as possible in their treatment of the information they index. Most indexes use elements or parts of the article you see in the figure above. Human indexers read or scan the articles and assign subject terms or descriptors from a controlled vocabulary list so that articles on the same subject are consistently described and brought under the same subject headings. Computers generate some of the other aspects of indexes such as keyword indexes (usually limited to the abstract field), publication date, etc.

Periodical indexes and databases (selected list)

The library subscribes to a variety of periodical indexes which may be in either print or CD-ROM formats or available electronically via the Internet. When you begin to look for information about a topic you will want to be sure that you choose the index most suited to your topic regardless of the format. For more specialized areas of study you will want to select from the large number of field specific indexes. These include Applied Science and Technology Index, Art Index, Business Periodicals Index, and Physical Education Index. The types of journals covered in a general index are different from those covered in a specialized index. Specialized indexes contain information directed toward a professional audience, while general indexes are geared to the general public. You may wish to ask a reference librarian for information about indexes relevant to your particular topic. Some of the indexes, in addition to the basic citation information (author, title, journal, date, and page), provide an abstract or summary of the articles. Abstracts will help you to judge the usefulness of an article before you spend time locating it, saving your research time.

Periodical Indexes (Print Format)

General Science Index

General Science Index lists citations to English-language science periodicals. Its subjects include the physical and life sciences, as well as genetics, environment and conservation, food and nutrition, and medicine and health. Feature articles are indexed, as are biographical sketches, symposia, conferences, review articles, selected letters to the editor, obituaries, and book reviews.

Humanities Index

Humanities Index lists citations to English language periodicals in the following subject areas: archaeology and classical studies, art, film, folklore, history, journalism, linguistics, literature, music, performing arts, philosophy, religion, and theology. Feature articles are indexed, as are interviews, obituaries, bibliographies, and reviews of plays, operas, ballets, dance, musicals, movies, television and radio.

Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature

Reader's Guide indexes general interest periodicals. Its subject matter covers news and current events in politics, business, science, education, religion, the arts, foreign affairs, sports and hobbies, fashion, food and cooking, and health and nutrition. Feature articles are indexed, as are speeches, obituaries, recipes, product evaluations, do-it-yourself works, reviews, and original works of fiction.

Social Sciences Index

Social Sciences Index provides citations to periodicals in the fields of economics, politics and foreign affairs, public administration, public health, sociology, criminology, environmental and urban studies, psychology and anthropology. Feature articles are indexed, as are interviews, obituaries, biographies, and book reviews.

Periodical Indexes (Computer)

Business Index

Business Indexprovides indexing and abstracting of over 700 business, management and trade journals -- plus indexing to The Wall Street Journal, the financial section of The New York Times, The Asian Wall Street Journal, and The Financial Times of Canada. Business Index provides a one-stop resource of information on: small business management, foreign trade opportunities, job hunting strategies, management theory, investments, local & regional economic trends, consumer surveys, marketing, personal finance, and MIS & business computing. Business Indexwill be available over the campus network. Inquire at the library reference desk for instructions on accessing this index from outside the library.

Expanded Academic Index

Updated monthly, Expanded Academic Index is the premier database for undergraduate research, providing indexing and abstracting to approximately 1,500 scholarly and general interest periodicals, plus The New York Times. This academic database provides research on: humanities, communication studies, book reviews, social sciences, current issues, the arts, science & technology, women's studies, national and international news, environmental studies, public affairs/policy. Expanded Academic Indexwill be available over the campus network. Inquire at the library reference desk for instructions on accessing this index from outside the library.

ERIC

ERIC contains citations and abstracts of the international journal and report literature in education and related fields. Subjects include all aspects of education, including child development, classroom techniques, computer education, counseling and testing, administration, higher education, library science, and vocational and adult education. Sources include journals and educational reports, project descriptions, curriculum guides, and dissertations. The complete texts of the document literature (ED numbers) are available on microfiche in the Periodicals Department.

Life Sciences

Life Sciences covers the biological, medical, and agricultural sciences. More specifically, the subjects matter covers microbiology, ecology, entomology, genetics, endocrinology, biochemistry, virology, toxicology, marine biology, and animal behavior. Over 5,000 journals, books, conference proceedings, monographs, and reports are reviewed for inclusion in the database.

Medline

The Medline database indexes over 3,200 journals each year. The subject matter covers anatomy and physiology, clinical medicine, dentistry, experimental medicine, mental disorders, microbiology, nutrition, pathology, parasitology, pharmacology, public health, reproduction, toxicology, and veterinary medicine. Approximately 50-65 percent of the citations include abstracts.

MLA International Bibliography

Produced by the Modern Language Association of America, the MLA International Bibliography indexes critical materials on modern language, literature, linguistics, and folklore. Covering literary and language scholarships from 1981 to the present, it provides access to over 3,000 journals and series published worldwide, monographs, working papers and proceedings, bibliographies, and more. The MLA International Bibliography provides easy access to a vast spectrum of subjects, from the prose of Machiavelli to the poetry of Adrienne Rich, from genres to literary forms, from national literatures to regional dialects.

PsychLit

PsychLit, produced by the American Psychological Association, contains citations and abstracts of the world's literature in psychology and related subjects. It covers journal material of psychological relevance scanned from journal titles from more than 50 countries. Beginning in 1987, it also contains references to books and book chapters. Approximately 50 percent of the articles selected are published outside the United States; 10 percent are in a language other than English.

Religion Index

Religion Index is produced by the American Theological Library Association. Coverage includes citations for approximately 480 journals of which 60 percent are in English, books and book chapters, and book reviews. Topics covered include theology, history of religion, ethics, and related interdisciplinary subjects.

FirstSearch

FirstSearch is more than a single index. It is a collection of more than 40 indexes that cover virtually all subject areas. Some of the indexes list only citations, while others include abstracts. In order to use this database, a password must be obtained from the reference librarian on duty. While there is no cost to the user for FirstSearch, there is a small charge to the library for each use of the service. Thus a consultation with a librarian to be sure that other sources for the required information have been checked is necessary before using this service.

Newspaper Indexes

New York Times Index

New York Times Index is a subject index to the country's leading newspaper with cross-references to names and organizations. Annotations are frequently included along with occasional maps and graphs.

Wall Street Journal Index

Wall Street Journal Index is a subject index to the country's leading business newspaper. Cross-references are made to personal and corporate names. Annotations are provided for most citations.

On-line public access catalog

Like journal articles, books have particular parts that are used in creating indexes. The old card catalog was one form of an index to books in the Library. The on-line public access catalog (OPAC) has replaced it. The OPAC has a number of advantages over the card catalog that make it possible to find books more easily. That is because additional parts of the book are indexed by computer.

You could find books by searching by author, exact title, keywords in the title, subject, International Standard Book Number (ISBN), or call number. This information about the book is also enhanced by information about the date of publication and language. Here is an example of how various elements of information about a book are represented in the Libraries on-line catalog (OPAC)

There are limits on what you can search however. For example, you can't find the entire contents of the book in the OPAC. Generally information in the OPAC is limited to key descriptive information. This descriptive information sometimes includes a notes field with chapter title information that is searchable.

Book specific information

There are other parts of a book that can be useful to you if you are trying to decide if the book will be useful to you for your research. This makes is worthwhile to actually look at the physical book and browse the shelves around one you have located through the OPAC. Take a look at the Table of contents or TOC (a list of chapter titles/headings) and the back of the book index (specific words or concepts included with page references). These can often provide additional subject specific information that cannot be found in the descriptive entry display in the OPAC.

Citation indexing

One final type of index is worth mentioning. In the process of doing research there are often times when one finds a relevant or exceptionally good article on a topic. The problem is that the article is several years old. The goal of research is to discover the most current and detailed information about a topic. Here a citation index can be helpful because authors nearly always cite previous work that has used by them or that they thought was relevant to the ideas or findings contained in their research. There is an implied subject relationship between articles when an author cites the work of another. Citation indexing is built on this premise.

A citation index is the most efficient way of finding articles published after the date of one you already have. Just as the bibliography at the end of one article allows you to look at previous relevant articles, citation indexing allows you to work forward in time to articles that have been published more recently.

Three citation indexes are available (only one of these in the LSU Library).

Arts and humanities citation index (available at UCR) covers fields such as religion, philosophy, literature etc.

Social science citation index (available in LSU reference) covers such fields as economics, psychology, sociology, political science etc.

Science citation index (available at LLU) covers such fields as biology, physics, medicine etc.

Citation indexing helps to identify groups of experts who are interested in the same general topics. These experts cite each other because they are doing work in the same, often narrow, area. Sometimes these groups are referred to as "invisible colleges." As you progress in your studies you will become more and more familiar with particular authors who publish on particular subjects and you will begin to know who the members of these invisible colleges are.